The History of How Cows Were Domesticated

According to archaeological and genetic evidence, wild cattle or aurochs (Bos primigenius) were likely domesticated independently at least twice and perhaps three times. A distantly related Bos species, the yak (Bos grunniens grunniens or Poephagus grunniens) was domesticated from its still-living wild form, B. grunniens or B. grunniens mutus. As domesticated animals go, cattle are among the earliest, perhaps because of the multitude of useful products they provide humans: food products such as milk, blood, fat, and meat; secondary products such as clothing and tools manufactured from hair, hides, horns, hooves and bones; dung for fuel; as well as load-bearers and for pulling plows. Culturally, cattle are banked resources, which can provide bride-wealth and trade as well as rituals such as feasting and sacrifices. Aurochs were significant enough to Upper Paleolithic hunters in Europe to be included in cave paintings such as those of Lascaux. Aurochs were one of the largest herbivores in Europe, with the largest bulls reaching shoulder heights of between 160-180 centimeters (5.2-6 feet), with massive frontal horns of up to 80 cm (31 inches) in length. Wild yaks have black upward- and backward-curving horns and long shaggy black to brown coats. The adult males can be 2 m (6.5 ft) high, over 3 m (10 ft) long and can weigh between 600-1200 kilograms (1300-2600 pounds); females weigh only 300 kg (650 pounds) on average. Domestication Evidence Archaeologists and biologists are agreed that there is strong evidence for two distinct domestication events from aurochs: B. taurus in the near east about 10,500 years ago, and B. indicus in the Indus valley of the Indian subcontinent  about 7,000 years ago. There may have been a third auroch domesticate in Africa (tentatively called  B. africanus), about 8,500 years ago. Yaks were domesticated in central Asia about 7,000-10,000 years ago. Recent mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies also indicate that B. taurus was introduced into Europe and Africa where they interbred with local wild animals (aurochs). Whether these occurrences should be considered as separate domestication events is somewhat under debate. Recent genomic studies (Decker et al. 2014) of 134 modern breeds supports the presence of the three domestication events, but also found evidence for later migration waves of animals to and from the three main loci of domestication. Modern cattle are significantly different today from the earliest domesticated versions. Three Auroch Domesticates Bos taurus The taurine (humpless cattle, B. taurus) was most likely domesticated somewhere in the Fertile Crescent about 10,500 years ago. The earliest substantive evidence for cattle domestication anywhere in the world is the Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures in the Taurus Mountains. One strong strand of evidence of the locus of domestication for any animal or plant is genetic diversity: places that developed a plant or animal generally have high diversity in those species; places where the domesticates were brought in, have lesser diversity. The highest diversity of genetics in cattle is in the Taurus Mountains. A gradual decline in overall body size of aurochs, a characteristic of domestication, is seen at several sites in southeastern Turkey, beginning as early as the late 9th at Cayonu Tepesi. Small-bodied cattle do not appear in archaeological assemblages in the eastern Fertile Crescent until relatively late (6th millennium BC), and then abruptly. Based on that, Arbuckle et al. (2016) surmise that domestic cattle arose in the upper reaches of the Euphrates river. Taurine cattle were traded across the planet, first into Neolithic Europe about 6400 BC; and they appear in archaeological sites as far away as northeastern Asia (China, Mongolia, Korea) by about 5000 years ago. Bos indicus (or B. taurus indicus) Recent mtDNA evidence for domesticated zebu (humped cattle, B. indicus) suggests that two major lineages of B. indicus are currently present in modern animals. One (called I1) predominates in southeast Asia and southern China and is likely to have been domesticated in the Indus Valley region of what is today Pakistan. Evidence of the transition of wild to domestic B. indicus is in evidence in Harappan sites such as Mehrgahr about 7,000 years ago. The second strain, I2, may have been captured in East Asia, but apparently was also domesticated in the Indian subcontinent, based on the presence of a broad range of diverse genetic elements. The evidence for this strain is not entirely conclusive as of yet. Possible: Bos africanus or Bos taurus Scholars are divided about the likelihood of a third domestication event having occurred in Africa. The earliest domesticated cattle in Africa have been found at Capeletti, Algeria, about 6500 BP, but Bos remains are found at African sites in what is now Egypt, such as Nabta Playa and Bir Kiseiba, as long ago as 9,000 years, and they may be domesticated. Early cattle remains have also been found at Wadi el-Arab (8500-6000 BC) and El Barga (6000-5500 BC). One significant difference for taurine cattle in Africa is a genetic tolerance to trypanosomosis, the disease spread by the tsetse fly which causes anemia and parasitemia in cattle, but the exact genetic marker for that trait has not been identified to date. A recent study (Stock and Gifford-Gonzalez 2013) found that although genetic evidence for African domesticated cattle is not as comprehensive or detailed as that for  other forms of cattle, what there is available suggests that domestic cattle in Africa are the result of wild aurochs having been introduced into local domestic B. taurus populations. A genomic study published in 2014 (Decker et al.) indicates that while considerable introgression and breeding practices have altered the population structure of modern day cattle, there is still consistent evidence for three major groups of domestic cattle. Lactase Persistence One recent strain of evidence for the domestication of cattle comes from the study of lactase persistence, the ability to digest milk sugar lactose in adults (the opposite of lactose intolerance). Most mammals, including humans, can tolerate milk as infants, but after weaning, they lose that ability. Only about 35% of people in the world are able to digest milk sugars as adults without discomfort, a trait called lactase persistence. This is a genetic trait, and it is theorized that it would have selected for in human populations that had ready access to fresh milk. Early Neolithic populations who domesticated sheep, goats and cattle would not have yet developed this trait, and probably processed the milk into cheese, yogurt, and butter prior to consuming it. Lactase persistence has been connected most directly with the spread of dairying practices associated with cattle, sheep, and goats into Europe by Linearbandkeramik populations beginning about 5000 BC. And a Yak (Bos grunniens grunniens or Poephagus grunniens) The domestication of yaks may well have made human colonization of the high Tibetan Plateau (also known as Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau) possible. Yaks are extremely well adapted to the arid steppes at high elevations, where low oxygen, high solar radiation, and extreme cold are common. In addition to the milk, meat, blood, fat, and pack energy benefits, perhaps the most important yak byproduct in the cool, arid climate is dung. The availability of yak dung as a fuel was a critical factor in allowing for the colonization of the high region, where other fuel sources are lacking. Yaks possess large lungs and hearts, expansive sinuses, long hair, thick soft fur (very useful for cold-weather clothing), and few sweat glands. Their blood contains a high hemoglobin concentration and red blood cell count, all of which make cold adaptations possible. Domestic Yaks The main difference between wild and domestic yaks is their size. Domestic yaks are smaller than their wild relatives: adults are generally no more than 1.5 m (5 ft) tall, with males weighing between 300-500 kg (600-1100 lbs), and females between 200-300 kg (440-600 lbs). They have white or piebald coats and lack gray-white muzzle hairs. They can and do interbreed with wild yaks, and all yaks have the high altitude physiology they are prized for. There are three types of domestic yaks in China, based on morphology, physiology, and geographical distribution: a valley type distributed in the valleys of north and east Tibet, and some parts of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces;a plateau grassland type mainly found in the high, cold pastures and steppes that maintain an annual average temperature below 2 degrees centigrade;and white yaks found in almost every region in China. Domesticating the Yak Historical reports dated to the Chinese Han Dynasty state that yaks were domesticated by the Qiang people during the Longshan culture period in China, about 5,000 years ago. The Qiang were ethnic groups who inhabited the Tibetan Plateau borderlands including Qinghai Lake. Han Dynasty records also say the Qiang people had a Yak State during the Han dynasty, 221 BC-220 AD, based on a highly successful trade network. Trade routes involving domestic yak were recorded beginning in the Qin dynasty records (221-207 BC)--predating and no doubt part of precursors to the Silk Road--and cross-breeding experiments with Chinese yellow cattle to create the hybrid dzo are described there as well. Genetic (mtDNA) studies support the Han Dynasty records that yaks were domesticated on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, although the genetic data does not allow definitive conclusions to be drawn about the number of domestication events. The variety and distribution of mtDNA are not clear, and it is possible that multiple domestication events from the same gene pool, or interbreeding between wild and domesticated animals occurred. However, the mtDNA and archaeological results also blur the dating of the domestication. The earliest evidence for domesticated yak is from the Qugong site, ca. 3750-3100 calendar years ago (cal BP); and the Dalitaliha site, ca 3,000 cal BP near Qinghai Lake. Qugong has a large number of yak bones with an overall small stature; Dalitaliha has a clay figurine thought to represent a yak, the remnants of a wood-fenced corral, and fragments of hubs from spoked wheels. The mtDNA evidence suggests domestication took place as early as 10,000 years BP, and Guo et al. argue that the Qinghai lake Upper Paleolithic colonizers domesticated the yak. The most conservative conclusion to draw from this is that yaks were first domesticated in northern Tibet, probably the Qinghai Lake region, and were derived from wild yak for the production of wool, milk, meat and manual labor, at least 5000 cal bp. How Many Are There? Wild yaks were widespread and abundant in the Tibetan Plateau up until the late 20th century when hunters decimated their numbers. They are now considered highly endangered with an estimated population of ~15,000. They are protected by law but still illegally hunted. Domestic yaks, on the other hand, are abundant, an estimated 14-15 million in central highland Asia. The current distribution of yaks is from the southern slopes of the Himalayas to the Altai and Hangai Mountains of Mongolia and Russia. Approximately 14 million yaks live in China, representing about 95% of the worlds population; the remaining five percent are in Mongolia, Russia, Nepal, India, Bhutan, Sikkim and Pakistan. Sources à lvarez I, Pà ©rez-Pardal L, Traorà © A, Fernà ¡ndez I, and Goyache F. 2016. Lack of specific alleles for the bovine chemokine (C-X-C) receptor type 4 (CXCR4) gene in West African cattle questions its role as a candidate for trypanotolerance. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 42:30-33. Arbuckle BS, Price MD, Hongo H, and Ãâ€"ksà ¼z B. 2016. Documenting the initial appearance of domestic cattle in the Eastern Fertile Crescent (northern Iraq and western Iran). Journal of Archaeological Science 72:1-9. Cai D, Sun Y, Tang Z, Hu S, Li W, Zhao X, Xiang H, and Zhou H. 2014. The origins of Chinese domestic cattle as revealed by ancient DNA analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 41:423-434. Colominas, Là ­dia. The impact of the Roman Empire on animal husbandry practices: study of the changes in cattle morphology in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula through osteometric and ancient DNA analyses.  Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, Angela Schlumbaum, Maria Saà ±a, Volume 6, Issue 1, SpringerLink, March 2014. Ding XZ, Liang CN, Guo X, Wu XY, Wang HB, Johnson KA, and Yan P. 2014. Physiological insight into the high-altitude adaptations in domesticated yaks (Bos grunniens) along the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau altitudinal gradient. Livestock Science 162(0):233-239. doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2014.01.012 Leonardi M, Gerbault P, Thomas MG, and Burger J. 2012. The evolution of lactase persistence in Europe. A synthesis of archaeological and genetic evidence. International Dairy Journal 22(2):88-97. Gron KJ, Montgomery J, Nielsen PO, Nowell GM, Peterkin JL, Sà ¸rensen L, and Rowley-Conwy P. 2016. Strontium isotope evidence of early Funnel Beaker Culture movement of cattle. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 6:248-251. Gron KJ, and Rowley-Conwy P. 2017. Herbivore diets and the anthropogenic environment of early farming in southern Scandinavia. The Holocene 27(1):98-109. Insoll T, Clack T, and Rege O. 2015. Mursi ox modification in the Lower Omo Valley and the interpretation of cattle rock art in Ethiopia. Antiquity 89(343):91-105. MacHugh DE, Larson G, and Orlando L. 2017. Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication. Annual Review of Animal Biosciences 5(1):329-351. Orlando L. 2015. The first aurochs genome reveals the breeding history of British and European cattle. Genome Biology 16(1):1-3. Orton J, Mitchell P, Klein R, Steele T, and Horsburgh KA. 2013. An early date for cattle from Namaqualand, South Africa: implications for the origins of herding in southern Africa. Antiquity 87(335):108-120. Park SDE, Magee DA, McGettigan PA, Teasdale MD, Edwards CJ, Lohan AJ, Murphy A, Braud M, Donoghue MT, Liu Y et al. 2015. Genome sequencing of the extinct Eurasian wild aurochs, Bos primigenius, illuminates the phylogeography and evolution of cattle. Genome Biology 16(1):1-15. Qanbari S, Pausch H, Jansen S, Somel M, Strom TM, Fries R, Nielsen R, and Simianer H. 2014. Classic Selective Sweeps Revealed by Massive Sequencing in Cattle. PLoS Genetics 10(2):e1004148. Qiu, Qiang. Yak whole-genome resequencing reveals domestication signatures and prehistoric population expansions. Nature Communications, Lizhong Wang, Kun Wang, et al., Volume 6, Article number: 10283, Decemeber 22, 2015. Scheu A, Powell A, Bollongino R, Vigne J-D, Tresset A, Çakirlar C, Benecke N, and Burger J. 2015. The genetic prehistory of domesticated cattle from their origin to the spread across Europe. BMC Genetics 16(1):1-11. Shi Q, Guo Y, Engelhardt SC, Weladji RB, Zhou Y, Long M, and Meng X. 2016. Endangered wild yak (Bos grunniens) in the Tibetan plateau and adjacent regions: Population size, distribution, conservation perspectives and its relation to the domestic subspecies. Journal for Nature Conservation 32:35-43. Stock, Frauke. Genetics and African Cattle Domestication. African Archaeological Review, Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, Volume 30, Issue 1, SpingerLink, March 2013. Teasdale MD, and Bradley DG. 2012. The Origins of Cattle. Bovine Genomics: Wiley-Blackwell. p 1-10. Upadhyay, MR. Genetic origin, admixture and population history of aurochs (Bos primigenius) and primitive European cattle. Heredity, W Chen, J A Lenstra, et al., Volume 118, Nature, September 28, 2016. Wang K, Hu Q, Ma H, Wang L, Yang Y, Luo W, and Qiu Q. 2014.  Genome-wide variation within and between wild and domestic yak. Molecular Ecology Resources 14(4):794-801. Zhang X, Wang K, Wang L, Yang Y, Ni Z, Xie X, Shao X, Han J, Wan D, and Qiu Q. 2016. Genome-wide patterns of copy number variation in the Chinese yak genome. BMC Genomics 17(1):379.

Steroids And Athletes Should Not Be Allowed - 1234 Words

Steroids and Athletes What is the best way to get big quick? Most would say to go to the gym or start a more intense workout program and eat right. It is contrary for some professional athletes that go against the correct way to maximize their strength and take steroids. Most your sport competitors participate in sports to have the opportunity to put their abilities against those of their peers. Many athletes are determined to win at all cost. They may use that determination to justify the use of steroids. Steroids are bad, there are many unfair advantages of athletes that use steroids to make gain in a game they love to play, athletes using steroids are not being good role models to the younger generation that looks up to them. , and many athletes have health risk from using steroids. Athletes that are in sports should not be allowed to consume steroids. Or if they are consuming steroids they should not be allowed to play sports. There are many unfair advantages of athletes that use steroids to make gain in a game they love to play. First, the use of steroids is cheating and it violates the rules and contracts athletes have agreed to. A player uses steroids to enhance his or her performance is illegal, so when a player uses them they are cheating. For example; Cheating is monitored today in sports by the use of referees or umpires. Referees and umpires cannot enforce steroid use because they have no way of telling if a player is on steroids or not they cannot beShow MoreRelatedSteriods in Sports Essay1259 Words   |  6 PagesThat athlete could improve his or her already superb skills into something even greater. This can be possible with the help of steroids. There is a current debate of allowing steroids to be legal in sports. Steroids should not be allowed in sports. Some people ask why. This research paper will give those people just a few of the many reasons why it should not be allowed. 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War on Drugs Solution Legalization Free Essays

Proposal Much like the exclusion of alcohol back in the 20s which was aimed to evict various substances from our civilization, the drug war today has not only ruined its mission, but has made its mission unfeasible. Today various failures, whether it is the huge amount of money being spent erroneously or the increasing number of crimes and users, one thing is for sure; the war on drugs has fallen short. There is no doubt that the usage and misusage of drugs can cause a huge difference in the lives of the users and the others around them, however the â€Å"War on Drugs†, is more of a failure than a success and one of the most effective solutions is, ironically, legalizing the light drug, marijuana, and distinguishing it from other illicit drugs being sold on the streets. We will write a custom essay sample on War on Drugs Solution: Legalization? or any similar topic only for you Order Now This research paper is intended to argue why the legalization of marijuana is the simple solution for the notorious war on drugs today as well as showing how society would actually benefit from the validation rather than the prohibition of some illicit substances. Outline Thesis Statement: There is no doubt that the usage and misusage of drugs can alter the lives of users and others around them. However, the â€Å"War on Drugs† is more of a failure than success and one of the most effective solutions is, ironically, legalizing the light drug, marijuana, and distinguishing it from other illicit drugs being sold on the streets. I. Failures and problems raised by the war. A. Financial failures. B. Social/Human failures. C. Criminal justice system problems. II. Approach to marijuana legalization. A. Marijuana’s historical background. B. Flexible strategies of legalization. III. Benefits of legalizing over banning. A. Financial benefits. B. Societal outcomes. C. Improvement of the criminal justice system. Ethics and politics are what make up the structure of a certain nation, so when a subject receives diverse reactions coming from two different standpoints it becomes controversial. The legalization of marijuana is a controversial subject; however, there are many encouraging arguments to support the idea. Taking a glimpse on its chronological milieu and the strategies of the legalization highlights the benefits of this validation as well as the problems elevated by the war on drugs. There is no doubt that the usage and misusage of drugs can alter the lives of users and others around them. However, the â€Å"War on Drugs† is more of a failure than success and one of the most effective solutions is, ironically, legalizing the light drug, marijuana, and distinguishing it from other illicit drugs being sold on the streets. Looking back through history one cannot but notice the mistakes of most governments in choosing war as an approach to create peace. The war on drugs that the United States government tends to use on its own citizens has proven that war is not an applicable option anymore. In Ron Paul’s farewell speech to the congress in 2012, he asks, â€Å"Why haven’t we given up on the drug war since it’s an obvious failure and violates the people’s rights? Has nobody noticed that the authorities can’t even keep drugs out of the prisons?† The failure of the war appears in three aspects; financially, socially, and the problems with the criminal justice rise. As for financial failure due to the drug war; the United States paid at least $1 trillion on the drug war, while it cost U. S. taxpayers at least $51 billion in 2009. As a response to that drug production; trafficking, consumption and overdoses have increased. As for the society’s sacrifice in that war, many casualties have been reported due to some errors and/or corruption in the system of the law enforcement directed towards the handling of the drug war. The article â€Å"The Drug War’s Hidden Economic Agenda†, by Blemenson and Nilsen in 1998, presents the case of Donald Scott, a Californian millionaire, who was wrongly accused of cultivating numerous marijuana plants on his five million dollar ranch. Despite many investigations, failed efforts to verify the anonymous tip, and information that Scott presented slight danger of violence; his ranch was totally raided by LA sheriff’s department armed with heavy weaponry and dogs. In response to the raid and out of fear and self-defense, Scott armed himself with a gun and was unfortunately shot by agents in front of his wife. Moreover, no trace of marijuana plants or other illicit substances were found (para. 17). Let’s suppose Donald Scott did have numerous marijuana plants, that shouldn’t be such a threat to the public and authorities to the point that they raid him on a military style basis and cause his unfortunate death. As for the problems that rise from the criminal justice system, Ron Paul questions â€Å" How can making our entire society a prison solve the problem? † where â€Å"Drug arrests have more than tripled in the last 25 years, totaling more than 1. 63 million arrests in 2010. More than four out of five of these arrests were for mere possession, and forty-six percent of these arrests (750,591) were for marijuana possession alone† (para. 7). One should think about it, it’s totally illogical and immoral to place a nonthreatening and non-violent person behind bars for the simple possession or use of marijuana for its recreational or proven medicinal value. Not to mention that prison is a place for hardcore drug addicts and criminals to suffer in. Adding to that, the incarceration of first time drug possessors could lead to serious repercussion of the violator and the family members. Moreover, the convicted could suffer many consequences such as losing his/her job, properties, college aid and shockingly losing the right to vote even after being released. Humankind has held the use of the cannabis plant properties for over 5000 years; whereas the false image and misconceptions built by prohibitionists have lasted barely seventy. The period in which society has looked upon marijuana positively and approvingly is almost seventy-five times longer than the period in which it was deemed to be considered as a public enemy. The earliest known recordings of the medicinal use of cannabis date back to first century A.D. , while nomadic tribes used the drug for spiritual purposes as early as the Stone Age. It may be shocking to know that the United States Constitution was written on paper made from hemp and that the first marijuana law, dated back to 1619, called farmers to plant â€Å"Indian hemp seed†. But the nasty business, the War on Marijuana, began in 1930 with the foundation of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, a Division of the U. S. Treasury Department. It was not until 1937, with the passage of the Marihuana Tax Act, that the United States actually restricted recreational and medical use of marijuana. Then after the Second World War joins president Nixon who targeted all drugs and treated drug users as some sort of terrorist aliens. Nixon signed the controlled substances act in 1970, placing marijuana as a schedule I drug disregarding the most comprehensive study done by the Shafer Commission, which recommended that: â€Å"Possession and non-profit transfer of marijuana be decriminalized, stating, in part, that the actual and potential harm from using it â€Å"is not great enough to justify intrusion by the criminal law into private behavior, a step which our society takes only with the greatest reluctance†(Johnston, 2011, para 3). Changing the public’s thought towards â€Å"addictive, lethal weed† prohibitionists won by creating a war, but have never yet got close to winning the war itself. Nowadays public views towards marijuana have been shifting to end prohibition due to the truth that has been found concerning that plant, the potential benefits that escort the use of cannabis, and its medical accomplishment and impossible harm. After this awareness citizens from all over the world have been fighting their governments demanding a reform on policies towards the failing drug war. One of the possible ways to win this war is ironically legalizing the light drug marijuana and conducting a new policy, based on credible findings, concerning the whole cycle from production to consumption. According to Mcvay 1991, to construct a prototypical scheme for legal marijuana it is essential to disregard the systems for alcohol and tobacco since the handling of these two drugs in America has failed. Therefore the systems concerning the two legal drugs, alcohol and tobacco, should be altered in a very critical way that acts into discouraging people from using them. After that reformation, placing the marijuana system in a similar way, controlling it from its production till its dispersal and everything that goes in between to developing an alarming attitude and public awareness towards the exploitation and first use of this drug, would work. Such a structure with strategic discouraging technics transmits the idea that marijuana is no longer adequate when permissible than it was when prohibited (par 4). As discussed previously, a controlled, organized and studied format can prove that marijuana legalization holds benefits over the alleged disadvantages. Improvements appear financially to the government, socially to the people and in the criminal justice system. On the public level, aspects concerning legalizing the drug from a financial view have been positive where the RAND Corporation’s Drug Research Center conducted a study revealing that the income coming from taxes to the state are more than half a million dollars ranging to $1. 5 billion depending on the market’s request (Abramsky 2012, p. 18). As for the society, the hemp plant can offer a large number of efficient materials like decomposable plastics, renewable energy source and most importantly medicine. After several credible scientific researches, cannabis was found to have various medicinal uses from treating backaches reaching to cancer cures where recently â€Å"a pair of scientists at California Pacific Medical Center in San Francisco has found that a compound derived from marijuana could stop metastasis in many kinds of aggressive cancer, potentially altering the fatality of the disease forever†(para. 1). Marijuana can be a substitute for many pharmaceutical pills that actually make takers feel so numb and make them pass out to sleep. It is even offered in edible ways like cookies and cakes and even lollipops in order to avoid the light harm smoke inhalation. Employment is also an outcome, for the process needs investors, growers, harvesters, and medical marijuana dispensaries for the sales. With cannabis becoming legal, users would be protected from the black market’s dealers who open doors to other destructive drugs. Regarding the criminal justice system, unfortunate cases like Donald Scott’s would be eliminated. Other than that the focus of the DEA agents and police officers would be on bigger and more sever issues that deal with the processing and trafficking of hardcore drugs on the streets. One can not just stick to what the government releases of information about the plant since it is known that governments tend to hide information for their personal benefit disregarding the misconceptions created in the minds of the people. Several researches have proven the mistakes of the government in classifying cannabis as illegal with no medicinal value and attacking it by a war it’s not supposed to be in. In closing, Dr. Ethan Russo in his article, â€Å"Cannabis for Migraine Treatment†, said it best: â€Å"There can be no doubt that a plant that has been in partnership with man since the beginnings of agricultural efforts, that has served man in so many ways, and that, under the searchlight of modern chemical study, has yielded many new and interesting compounds will continue to be a part of man’s economy. It would be a luxury that we could ill afford if we allowed prejudices, resulting from the abuse of Cannabis, to deter scientists from learning as much as possible about this ancient and mysterious plant† (para. 4). How to cite War on Drugs Solution: Legalization?, Essays

Strategy Planning and Implementation Research

Question: Disscuss about the Strategy Planning and Implementation Research. Answer: Introduction In the modern day business, competition among different organizations has become more intense than ever. Every business fights for the top position and aspires to leave the competitors way behind them. The series of actions and reactions which an organization follows in order to achieve its goals is known as corporate strategy. These actions are highly correlated and can be very complex in nature. The main aim of corporate strategy developed by any organization is to make the most of the opportunities available to them and minimize the threats in order to magnify their chance of successful goal attainment. The complete collection of these steps and decisions to act, react, or not to take any steps at all, form an integral part of corporate strategy (Mintzberg, 2015). This report discusses two major types of strategies known as Planned Strategy and Emergent Strategy. Mintzberg and Waters (1985) divided organizational strategies into two major categories i.e. Analytical/Planned and Emergent. There are certain strategies that possess the features of both analytical and emergent strategies, giving rise to another kind of corporate strategy which can be called Analytically Emergent strategies. The report focuses on Planned and Emergent strategies, the main differences of these two kinds of strategies, how these strategies are relevant to the working of an organization and finally the advantages of these strategies to different stakeholder of the business. Planned Strategy vs Emergent Strategy Planned strategy consists of an intended series of steps that are considered to be most suitable for attaining decided business goals. These kinds of strategies are normally explained in detail within the action plan of an organization. Planned approach to strategy development mainly recognizes where the firm is now and what course of action is to be followed in order to achieve its predetermined goals. This kind of strategies clearly lays down the role and duties of different individuals in order to reach where the organization wants to go. It also defines the timing of actions and reactions to be carried around (Mintzberg Waters, 1985). Emergent approach towards developing strategy on the other hand, does not involve a great deal of pre planning. Henry Mintzberg was the first person who coined the term emergent that explained the continuous evolvement in the strategy of an organization so that it is capable of keeping up and also overtaking the external factors of the marketplace in order to achieve the set goals. The real life situations tend to be very different from what is anticipated by the strategy planners. As the world is moving really fast, every new day brings an altogether different set of opportunities and threats (Root, 2017). There is a constant need of the organizations action plan to be dynamic and flexible. Emergent strategy focuses on the evolvement of both internal and external factors, whilst adapting to new changes and challenges quickly. Planned Strategy Emergent Strategy 1. A pre-planned course of action is laid out. 1. The strategy is developed with less planning and more focus on everyday changes 2. Static in nature. 2. Dynamic in nature. 3. More focus on internal factors and predictions (Chatterjee, 2009). 3. More focus on everyday changing external environment factors. 4. The role of every individual in the organization is defined in detail. 4. The role of individuals is not pre-determined and the best person to handle the situation is given the charge (Manuwa, 2014). Practical application of Strategies The life of a student works in a similar way to a business organization. There are goals, a mission, a vision and an action plan to achieve the goals. Strategy is not only required on the academic front but is also needed to achieve personal goals. Both Planned Strategy and Emergent strategy have their own perks and flaws, depending on the situation. But personally a mixture of both these approaches to devise strategies which can be termed as Realized Strategy is the best suited type of strategy (Hoskisson, Eden, Lau, 2000). Arealized strategycan be defined as a strategy that one actually ends up following. They are a mixture of a planned strategy that covers a series of actions and decisions to achieve the goal and an emergent strategy that shows what one did in the case of unexpected challenges. While being the leader of a group project my planned strategy was to equally allot different sections of research for everyone in the group (Ligrani, 2014). A course of action was decided and the role of different individuals was defined. Unfortunately, one of our group members fell sick and could not contribute. I instantly had to change the portion of research allotted to everyone in order to cover the sick member. This was the emergent strategy that helped me to get through the unseen challenge (Aarons, 2014). Now during this practical experience, the realized strategy that I developed for the future was working ahead of the deadline. If one plans to achieve the goal, working ahead of time is a must. It make s the strategy flexible and adaptable. Benefits to Stakeholders The stakeholders of any organization are highly interested in the profits. Stakeholders favor the strategy that results in profit maximization. There is no hard and fast rule as to which one of these strategies can fetch a higher profit. In fact the approach to strategy development depends greatly on the nature of the business. If the organizations environment is predictable and stable, planned strategy can be very effective. On the other hand, if the organization is highly sensitive to external environmental factors, then emergent approach to strategy development should be adopted. But again, the best strategy is a mixture of both these approaches (Linton, 2017). Frederick Smith while studying at Yale in 1966 had to develop a business plan for a company as a part of his coursework. In his plan he explained a delivery system that would acquire effectiveness by channelling parcels via a central hub and then transfer them to their final destinations (Enterpreneur India, 2008). After some years, Smith started Federal Express (FedEx), an organization that closely followed the strategy laid out in his plan for a business plan in his classroom. Today, Frederick Smiths personal wealth has exceeded $4 billion, and FedEx ranks eighth among the Worlds Most Admired Companies according toFortunemagazine. The planned approach to strategy, hence helped Smith to create an actual company from a business plan on paper (Donahoe, 2011). Emergent strategies can also lead to huge success. The Southern Bloomer Manufacturing Company was created to make underwear of heavy cotton fabrics to make them suitable for use in prisons and mental hospitals. It was servicing the requirements of around 140 facilities, but unfortunately, this was creating a large volume of scrap fabric. One day, the cofounder Don Sonner visited a gun shop and noticed that the material of patches that was used to clean the inside of the gun barrels was of poor quality. He instantly spotted an opportunity to use his scrap fabric (Bloomberg L.P., 2017). The patches that the gun shop sold to clean the inside of gun barrels were of poor quality. The patches gained popularity quickly were in high demand among the military, police departments, and individual gun enthusiasts. In a short period of time, Southern Bloomer sold millions of pounds of patches every year. Hence, a normal trip to a gun store gave rise to an excellent emergent strategy (Jones Hill, 2014). Conclusion To conclude, I would say that stakeholders can be more inclined towards a planned strategy as it clearly defines the mission and vision of the organization. The stakeholders can be sure of what they are getting themselves into. There is a sense of security in this kind of strategy. But emergent strategy holds great importance when it comes to facing unexpected challenges and threats. Emergent strategy can also be very effective to take advantage of sudden opportunities. Hence a strategy that is a mixture of both these approaches would give best results to the stakeholders. References Aarons, G. (2014, March). Practical Application of Frameworks and Strategies for Evidence-Based Practice Implementation Research. Retrieved from https://cred.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=2424186 Bloomberg L.P. (2017). Southern Bloomer Manufacturing Co.Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com: https://www.bloomberg.com/profiles/companies/0145047D:US-southern-bloomer-manufacturing-co Chatterjee, N. (2009, May 01). Intended or Emergent what is the ultimate strategy adopted by an organisation? Retrieved from https://niranjanchatterjee.wordpress.com/2009/05/01/intended-or-emergent-%E2%80%93-what-is-the-ultimate-strategy-adopted-by-an-organisation/ Donahoe, J. (2011, March 21). Forbes: Fred Smiths fortune grows to $2.1B. Retrieved from https://www.bizjournals.com/memphis/news/2011/03/10/forbes-fred-smiths-fortune-grows-to.html Enterpreneur India. (2008). Fred Smith.Founder of Federal Express Corp: An Overnight Success. Retrieved from https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/197542 Hoskisson, R., Eden, L., Lau, C. (2000, June). Strategy in Emerging Economies. The Academy of Management Journal, 43(3), 249-267. Retrieved from https://www.rcmewhu.com/upload/file/20150528/20150528111138_3012.pdf Jones, G., Hill, C. (2014). Strategic Management: Theory: An Integrated Approach. Cengage Learning. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=Qy8aCgAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PP1dq=planned+strategy+vs+emergent+approach+to+strategyots=o8rLZnHXwssig=CyegnEi94WxjqKpjzbNWvs-vNFg#v=onepageq=planned%20strategy%20vs%20emergent%20approach%20to%20strategyf=false Ligrani, K. (2014, March 26). Narrowing the Gap between Intended and Realized UX Strategy. Retrieved from https://www.effectiveui.com/blog/2014/03/26/narrowing-the-gap-between-intended-and-realized-ux-strategy/ Linton, I. (2017). What Are the Benefits of Stakeholder Communication? Retrieved from https://smallbusiness.chron.com/benefits-stakeholder-communication-38875.html Manuwa, A. (2014, June 30). Deliberate vs. Emergent Business Strategy. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140630061420-296333353-deliberate-vs-emergent-business-strategy Mintzberg. (2015). Crafting strategy. HBR. Retrieved from https://partnersinperformance.us/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Mintzberg_Crafting_Strategy_HBR.pdf Mintzberg, H., Waters, J. (1985). Of Strategies, Deliberate and Emergent. Strategic Management Journal, 6(3), 257-272. Retrieved from https://strategy.sjsu.edu/www.stable/B290/reading/Mintzberg,%20H,%201985,%20Strategic%20Management%20Journal.%206%20pp%20257-272.pdf Root, G. (2017). Advantage Disadvantage of Emergent Strategy. Retrieved from https://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantage-disadvantage-emergent-strategy-10070.html